aPoznan University of Life Sciences, Institute of Food Technology of Plant Origin, ul. Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznan, PolandFind articles by
aPoznan University of Life Sciences, Institute of Food Technology of Plant Origin, ul. Wojska Polskiego 31, 60-624 Poznan, PolandFind articles by
bPoznan University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, ul. Wojska Polskiego 28, Poznan 60-637, PolandFind articles by
European black elderberry naturally occurs in most of Europe and has been introduced into various parts of the world for fruit and flower production. Elderberry is rich in nutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fatty acids, organic acids, minerals, vitamins and essential oils. Elderberry also contains cyanogenic glycosides which are potentially toxic. Polyphenols, known for their free radical scavenging (antioxidant) activity, are the most important group of bioactive compounds present in elderberry in relatively high concentration. The high antioxidant activity of elderberry fruit and flowers is associated with their therapeutic properties. Elderberry has for a long time been used in folk medicine as a diaphoretic, antipyretic and diuretic agent. In recent years it was also found to have antibacterial, antiviral antidepressant and antitumour and hypoglycemic properties, and to reduce body fat and lipid concentration. Due to its health-promoting and sensory properties, elderberry is used primarily in food and pharmaceutical industry.
The American elderberry shrub (Sambucus canadensis) is a fast-growing, multi-stemmed deciduous plant native across most of North America While prized for its edible berries, showy spring blooms, and wildlife benefits, the elderberry also contributes valuable ecosystem services through oxygen production. But how much oxygen does this common shrub actually generate through photosynthesis? Read on for a deep dive into elderberry oxygen output and why it matters
Understanding Elderberry Growth Patterns
To estimate potential oxygen production we must first consider the elderberry’s natural growth habits
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Mature height of 5-12 feet with an arching, vase-like form and 6-12 foot spread.
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Rapid growth when young, reaching full size within just 3-4 years.
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Abundant green foliage comprised of toothed, pinnate leaves up to 12 inches long.
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New growth emerges early each spring, with leaves unfolding by March or April.
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Leaves remain until dropping in autumn with the onset of dormancy.
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Capable of vigorous suckering from roots, forming dense colonies.
How Photosynthesis Converts CO2 into O2
Elderberry oxygen production is directly tied to photosynthesis. This complex process takes place in the green chloroplasts within plant cells. Simply put, it works like this:
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Carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed from the air through leaf stomata.
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Water (H2O) enters the plant through the roots.
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Using energy from sunlight, chlorophyll converts CO2 + H2O into carbohydrates + oxygen (O2).
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The plant stores carbohydrates for energy and growth.
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Oxygen is released back into the atmosphere through leaf stomata.
Without photosynthesizing plants like elderberry, Earth’s atmosphere would lack breathable O2 for humans and animals.
Estimating Oxygen Release of an Elderberry Shrub
While exact oxygen measurements are difficult, we can derive realistic estimates:
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On average, a single mature tree can provide enough oxygen for 2 people annually.
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As a medium-sized, multi-stemmed shrub, each elderberry likely produces O2 sufficient for at least 1 person per year.
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More precise figures suggest 1 elderberry shrub can release ~400-600 pounds of oxygen over a growing season.
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Elderberry colonies with 20+ stems may generate O2 for up to 5+ people.
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Assuming a shrub’s leaves photosynthesize at full capacity for 5 months annually, it produces ~2 pounds of O2 per day at peak.
Factors Influencing Elderberry O2 Production
Multiple variables affect an elderberry shrub’s oxygen output:
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Age – Oxygen release increases as shrubs mature and produce more foliage.
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Health – Vigorous, pest/disease-free plants photosynthesize optimally.
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Growing conditions – Ideal sun, soil, moisture and nutrients boost growth.
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Leaf surface area – More/larger leaves can absorb more CO2 for conversion.
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Duration of leaf cover – Warm climates with earlier leaf emergence equal more O2 days.
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Pruning practices – judicious pruning encourages new growth and increased photosynthesis.
Why Elderberry O2 Matters
While a single shrub may seem insignificant, elderberries’ cumulative oxygen contributions are ecologically valuable:
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Oxygen enables human, animal, and plant respiration for energy and life.
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Oxygen absorbs harmful UV rays in the atmosphere.
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The oxygen/carbon dioxide balance regulates Earth’s temperature and climate patterns.
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Oxygen fuels essential ecological processes like decomposition of organic matter.
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Adequate oxygen promotes healthier air quality for all living organisms.
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More atmospheric oxygen can combat climate change effects.
Supporting Our Oxygen Heroes
We often take oxygen and the plants that produce it for granted. But the everyday act of photosynthesis by native shrubs like the American elderberry sustains all aerobic life. A few ways we can support these O2 heroes:
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Plant more elderberries and other native species suited to the local environment.
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Reduce use of fossil fuels that release CO2 and counter oxygen’s benefits.
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Conserve existing woodlands and greenspaces that harbor oxygen-producing plants.
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Advocate for policies and incentives that expand parks, plantings, and biodiversity.
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Educate others on plants’ oxygen contributions and why they matter.
Though just a humble shrub, the versatile American elderberry punches above its weight class by generating the oxygen that powers life on Earth. Quantifying its oxygen production illuminates how much we depend on common plants for our very breath.
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Bioavailability of elderberry antioxidants
In a study which investigated the metabolism of various anthocyanins after oral administration of elderberry juice, small amounts of Sambucus nigra anthocyanins were identified in human urine. Seven volunteers took 4 g of spray-dried elderberry juice, corresponding to 50 ml of fresh juice and containing 500 mg of anthocyanins (12.5%). Several peaks appeared in the chromatogram and two of them had the same retention time as the major cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside from juice. Only 0.04% of the consumed cyanidin-3-sambubioside and 0.01% of cyanidin-3-glucoside were excreted into urine and the highest excretion of anthocyanins was noted 3–4 h after the intake of elderberry juice. Even lower amounts of unmetabolized cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside-5-gluside were identified in a few samples; however, other substances shown in the chromatogram that were possible metabolites of Sambucus nigra anthocyanins were not identified (Murkovic, Mülleder, Adam, & Pfannhauser, 2001). According to another study concerning the absorption of anthocyanins, these antioxidants are ingested by humans in their original, unchanged glycosylated forms. The content of anthocyanins in blood plasma and urine was analysed in four women treated with 12 mg of elderberry extract, containing 720 mg anthocyanins consisting mainly of cyanidin-3-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-glucoside. The blood plasma samples, which were collected before and between 10 min and 24 h after the consumption of the extract exhibited at least five additional anthocyanin-like compounds, primarily cyanidin-3-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-glucoside. The levels of all detected compounds decreased after 1 h, disappearing after 24 h. Their maximum concentration in blood plasma was reached within 72 min after the intake, and its average value was 97.4 nmol/l of total anthocyanins. In the urine samples, collected before and between 0 and 24 h after the intake, at least six compounds were detected at 520 nm after extract consumption, and the major anthocyanins were also cyanidin-3-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-glucoside. Most anthocyanin-like compounds appeared in urinary excretion during the first 4 h. The total amount of the anthocyanins excreted during 24 h after the intake of the elderberry extract was 397.0 µg of cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents, while the average excretion rate of these compounds during the first 4 h was 77.2 µg/h and during the second 4 h–13.4 µg/h (Milbury, Cao, Prior, & Blumberg, 2002). In a study by Bitsch et al., cyanidin glucosides and glucuronides were detected in urinary excretion. Seven healthy volunteers consumed 150 mL of elderberry juice concentrate which contained 3.57 g of total anthocyanins. Within 5 h after the ingestion of the juice dose, the urinary excretion of total cyanidin glucosides (cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin-3-sambubioside, cyanidin-3-glucoside) and their glucuronide conjugates was 1.876 mg of cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, which constituted 0.053% of the administered dose. The percentage of the excreted glucuronides was only 0.003%, while the share of the glucuronides in relation to all excreted anthocyanins was 6.2%. The maximum excretion rate of anthocyanins was reached after one hour of intake, followed by a sharp drop (Bitsch et al., 2004). In another study, the urinary excretion, the plasma concentration of elderberry anthocyanins as well as other antioxidant parameters were determined. Eight participants received doses of elderberry juice (200, 300 and 400 ml) in separate treatments. The total anthocyanin content, including cyanidin-3-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-glucoside, in urinary excretion increased with the increase in the juice dose taken. The lowest elderberry juice dose (200 ml), which contained 361 mg of total anthocyanins, caused the excretion of, on average, 41.4 µg/h of anthocyanins, while after the highest dose (400 ml) containing 722 mg of total anthocyanins, the average urinary excretion of these compounds was 113.2 µg/h. Within 7 h, the values of the fraction of orally ingested total anthocyanins in urinary excretion were 0.033, 0.038 and 0.040% after the intake of 200, 300 and 400 ml of juice, respectively. The aim of the second treatment was to investigate the effect of the intake of 400 ml elderberry juice or water (control) on the content and antioxidant capacity of total phenolics and anthocyanins and of ascorbic and uric acid in blood plasma. Both the content and the antioxidant activity of total phenolics and anthocyanins increased after juice ingestion, reaching the highest level 1 h after the intake, whereas the values of these parameters did not change in the control group. At the same time, the concentrations of ascorbic and uric acid were unaffected by the elderberry juice or water intake (Netzel et al., 2005). Czank et al. found that the bioavailability of anthocyanins was higher and the diversity of their metabolites was greater than previously thought. Eight healthy male participants received 500 mg bolus dose of isotopically labelled cyanidin-3-glucoside (6,8,10,3′,5′-13C5-cyanidin-3-glucoside) and their samples of blood, urine, breath and faeces were examined within 48 h after the ingestion. The average recovery of 13C in breath, urine and faeces was 43.9% and the relative bioavailability from urine and breath was 12.38%. The 13C labelled metabolites consisted of 24 compounds and included phase II conjugates of C3G and cyanidin, degradants, phase II conjugates of protocatechuic acid, phenylacetic acids, phenylpropenoic acids and hippuric acid. The metabolites reached a 42-fold peak of serum concentration relative to 13C5-C3G, and were detected much later than the parent anthocyanin (Czank et al., 2013). The results of the above-mentioned studies on the bioavailability of elderberry antioxidants are summarized in .
| Human subjects | Elderberry preparation | Dose | Duration | Urinary excretion | Cmax | tmax | Metabolites | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7 volunteers (3 female, 4 male) | 4 g of spray-dried elderberry juice (50 ml of fresh juice equivalent), containing 12.5% of anthocyanins | 500 mg of anthocyanins | 6 h | 0.04% of cyanidin-3-sambubioside, 0.01% of cyanidin-3-glucoside | – | – | Probable but not identified | Murkovic et al. (2001) |
| 4 female subjects | 12 mg of elderberry extract dissolved in 500 ml of water | 720 mg of anthocyanins | 24 h | 0.055% | 97.4 nmol/l | 72 min | – | Milbury et al. (2002) |
| 7 volunteers (6 female, 1 male) | 150 ml of concentrated elderberry juice | 3569 mg of anthocyanins | 5 h | 0.053% | – | – | Glucuronide conjugates (0.003%) | Bitsch et al. (2004) |
| 8 volunteers (4 female, 4 male) | 200 ml of elderberry juice | 361 mg | 7 h | 0.033% | – | Netzel et al. (2005) | ||
| 300 ml of elderberry juice | 541 mg | 7 h | 0.038% | |||||
| 400 ml of elderberry juice | 722 mg of anthocyanins | 7 h | 0.040% | |||||
| 400 ml of elderberry juice | 2240 mg of total phenolics | 4 h | – | 16.1 mg/l | 1 h | |||
| 710 mg of anthocyanins | – | 52.6 µg/l | 1 h | |||||
| 8 male subjects | 500 mg of isotopically labelled cyanidin-3-glucoside (6,8,10,3′,5′-13C5-C3G) | 500 mg (as two 250 mg capsules) | 48 h | 5.37% | 0.14 µmol/l | 1.81 h | Phase II conjugates of C3G and cyanidin, degradants, phase II conjugates of protocatechuic acid, phenylacetic acids, phenylpropenoic acids, hippuric acid | Czank et al. (2013) |
| Medicinal potential | Study design | Elderberry preparation | Dosage | Duration | Results | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antiviral activity | Female mice (6 weeks old) infected with influenza A virus | Concentrated elderberry juice separated in three fractions (low, medium and high molecular weight) | 2 times/day | 14 days | Suppression of the viral yield in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALFs) and lungs; increase in the level of IFV specific neutralizing antibody in the BALFs and serum and in the level of the secretory IgA in the BALFs and feces | Kinoshita et al. (2012) |
| R, D-B, P-C, 60 patients (18–54 years) presenting influenza A and B symptoms | Standardized elderberry extract (Sambucol® syrup) | 15 ml, 4 times/day | 5 days | Symptoms of influenza A and B virus ebbed four days earlier in the elderberry group compared to the placebo group | Zakay-Rones et al. (2004) | |
| R, D-B, P-C, 64 patients (16–60 years) presenting flu symptoms | Proprietary elderberry extract as lozenge (175 mg of extract in each lozenge) | 4 lozenges/day | 48 h | 28% of patients in the elderberry group were void of all flu symptoms and 60% of patients experienced a relief of some symptoms, whereas the placebo group demonstrated no improvement | Kong (2009) | |
| Diabetes treatment | Male rats (28 weeks old) divided into four groups including diabetic rats | Polyphenolic elderberry extract | 0.040 g/kg body every 2 days | 16 weeks | Improvement of the bone mineral density and of the antioxidative capacity of serum; reduction in the body fat in diabetic rats; decrease in the lipid peroxidation level in serum; improvement of the osteoporosis status | Badescu et al. (2012) |
| Male rats (11 weeks old) divided into four groups including type 2 diabetic rats fed a high-fat diet | Elderberry polar extract | 350 mg/kg body/day | 4 weeks | The polar extract lowered fasting blood glucose, the lipophilic extract decreased insulin secretion. Both extracts reduced insulin resistance | Salvador et al. (2017) | |
| Elderberry lipophilic extract | 190 mg/kg body/day | |||||
| Effect on metabolic dysfunctions in obesity | Male mice (8 weeks old) divided into four groups including diet-induced obese mice | Elderberry extract (13% of anthocyanins) | 0.25% of extract (20–40 mg anthocyanins/kg body1.25% of extract (100–200 mg/kg body | 16 weeks | Both elderberry groups had a lower liver weight and serum TAG concentration, and lower serum inflammatory markers, insulin resistance and hepatic lipids compared to the control obese group; the addition of 1.25% of extract reduced liver cholesterol and PPARγ2 mRNA compared to both other obese groups | Farrel, Norris, Ryan et al. (2015) |
| Effect on cholesterol and HDL dysfunctions | Male mice (10 weeks old) in a mouse model of hyperlipidemia and HDL dysfunction | Elderberry extract (13% of anthocyanins) | 1.25% of extract (100–200 mg anthocyanins/kg body | 6 weeks | No significant differences in serum lipids between groups; reduction in aspartate transaminase and fasting glucose in the elderberry group; changes in hepatic and intestinal mRNA with an improvement in HDL function and a reduction in hepatic cholesterol levels; increase in serum paraxonase-1 arylesterase activity in the elderberry group | Farrel, Norris, Lee et al. (2015) |
| Effect on lipid and antioxidant status | R, P-C, D-B, 34 healthy volunteers (20 males, 24 females) | 400 mg spray-dried elderberry powder in gelatinous capsules (10% of anthocyanins in each capsule) | 3 times/day | 2 and 3 weeks | No significant differences in the changes in serum lipids and vitamin A, E and β-carotene in the elderberry group were observed compared to the placebo group; a decrease in the level of vitamin C in both groups; | Murkovic et al. (2004) |
| 6 volunteers | The same | A single dose | 1 day | An increase in total anthocyanins in serum; | ||
| Effect on weight reduction | 80 participants | Elderberry juice with flower extract; tablets containing berry powder and flower extract (1 mg anthocyanins, 370 mg flavonol glycosides, 150 mg hydroxycinnamates); Tablets containing Asparagus officinalis powder (19 mg saponins) | At least 3 L of elderberry juice, 3 Sambucus nigra tablets and 9 Asparagus officinalis tablets/day | 15 days | The BMI index dropped by approx. 3%, the weight fell by an average of 3.2 kg, systolic blood pressure decreased by an average of over 5% and diastolic blood pressure by 2.5% | Chrubasik et al. (2008) |
| Effect on weight reduction and urinary parameters | 11 volunteers | Diluted (1:5) concentrate of elderberries (from 120 g of berries) and flowers (flower juice and extract from 3.9 g of dried flowers) | 200 ml divided into up 6 portions | 7 days | An average weight reduction was 2.6 kg; no effect on pH, hydrogen ion concentration and 24 h hydrogen excretion in urine; no effect on the solubility of stone-inducing ions | Walz and Chrubasik (2008) |
| Antidepressant potential | Male mice divided into six groups | S. nigra extract and S. ebulus extract; | 200–1200 mg/kg | – | S. nigra showed better activity than S. ebulus; reduction in the immobility time and increase in the activity in the Sambucus groups compared to the control group (measured by the forced swimming test and tail suspension test); a dose of 1200 mg/kg of extract significantly increased the activity compared to the imipramine group | Mahmoudi et al. (2014) |
| Imipramine | 10 mg/kg |
Production and harvest
In the USA, elderberries are grown commercially on a small scale in the states of New York, Ohio, Oregon (Way, 1981), Missouri and Kentucky. However, in the USA, the most commonly grown are hybrids between S. nigra ssp. nigra and ssp. canadensis. Breeders at the Experiment Station in Geneva (Cornell University) discovered that such hybrids are resistant to viruses spread in elderberry plantations by nematodes (Way, 1981). Elderberries are planted in single rows. The distance between bushes in the row is between 1.5 and 2.5 m (Kaack, 1984). Well developed bushes require a spacing of 2–2.5 meters increased by the width of machines (Roper & McManus, 1998). The recommended maximum density of elderberry bushes is approximately 1200 bushes/ha (Charlebois et al., 2010).
Plants come into full production after 3–4 years. The elderberry fruit is not well suited for mechanical harvesting because it does not separate readily from the pedicels (Charlebois et al., 2010), however in some countries it is collected using machinery constructed for other berry crops and adapted for elderberry (McKay, 2001). The yield depends on the growing site, growing condition, planting distance and cultivar, and can vary from 1.3 kg/bush for wild-harvested genotypes to 23.0 kg/bush for some cultivars (Kaack, 1984, Kollanyi et al., 2005, Waźbińska et al., 2004). Elderberry flowering cymes harvested for fresh use or drying are clipped when all flowers are open. Individual flowers are easily removed from the cyme by rubbing over screens. The flowers may then be dried or frozen for future use (Byers, Thomas, & Gold, 2014).
Health Benefits Of Elderberry AND How To Grow The BEST Elderberry Bushes!
FAQ
What is the difference between elderberry and American elderberry?
How much room does an elderberry bush need?
Can you grow elderberry in a greenhouse?
What is elderberry shrub good for?
Is elderberry a good plant?
Elderberry is an attractive plant that produces showy flowers, showy berries, and plenty of foliage to keep your landscape interesting and full of birds and pollinators from spring through fall. Learn how to plant, grow, and care for elderberry shrubs!
How do you plant American elderberry?
When planting your American elderberry, choose a spot that isn’t prone to standing water (the plants have shallow roots and can rot easily) and plant each shrub at least a few feet apart from one another to allow them to grow freely. When it comes to the American elderberry, drought is pretty much the one thing it cannot tolerate.
How much water does an elderberry need?
Your elderberry will need around an inch or two of water weekly during its peak growth period or during times of extremely hot or dry weather. Remember, the plant’s roots are very close to the surface, so if the top layer of soil is dry, it’s a good indication that they are too.
Which soil is best for elderberry plants?
Slightly acidic soils are best for growing healthy elderberry shrubs. Elderberry does best in organically rich, moist soil. It tolerates a soil pH between 5.0 and 8.0 but prefers slightly acidic soils. While the canes and fruit tolerate cold, this deciduous plant drops its leaves for the winter.